Wikipedia:Today's featured article/August 2004
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August 1
Quantum mechanics is a physical theory that describes the behaviour of physical systems over small distances. It is the underlying framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, quantum chemistry, and particle physics. It is derived from a small set of basic principles, and explains four types of phenomena that classical mechanics and classical electrodynamics cannot account for: quantization, the uncertainty principle, wave-particle duality, and quantum entanglement. (more...)
Recently featured: Typewriter – History of Scotland – Radar
August 2
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson was a British admiral who won fame as a leading naval commander during the Napoleonic Wars. He was knighted in 1797 following his victory at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. He died at the Battle of Trafalgar, a decisive English victory in the war. Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: "The Nelson Touch". He was revered after death like few military figures in British history. (more...)
Recently featured: Quantum mechanics – Typewriter – History of Scotland
August 3
Economics is the social science studying the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Understanding choices by individuals and groups is central in economics, as choosing one alternative often means foregoing another (see opportunity cost). The term economics was coined around 1870 and popularized by Alfred Marshall in his book Principles of Political Economy. Before the 1930s, most economic analysis concentrated on individual firms and industries (microeconomics); however John Maynard Keynes pioneered the more modern macroeconomics, a branch of economics that attempts to make predictions about an entire economy. (more...)
Recently featured: Lord Nelson – Quantum mechanics – Typewriter
August 4
Father Damien was a Roman Catholic missionary of the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary who is revered primarily by Christians and residents of Hawaii for having dedicated his life in service to the lepers of Molokai in the Kingdom of Hawaii. In Catholicism, Father Damien is the spiritual patron of lepers, outcasts, those with HIV/AIDS and the State of Hawaii. Father Damien Day is celebrated each year in Hawaii on April 15. (more...)
Recently featured: Economics – Lord Nelson – Quantum mechanics
August 5
The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an English order of chivalry with a history stretching back to mediæval times; today it is Europe's oldest national order of knighthood in continuous existence and the pinnacle of the British honours system. Its membership is extremely limited, consisting of the Sovereign and not more than twenty-five full members. Male members are known as Knights Companion, whilst female members are known as Ladies Companion. The Sovereign alone grants membership of the Order; the Prime Minister does not tender binding advice as to appointments, as is done for most other orders. (more...)
Recently featured: Father Damien – Economics – Lord Nelson
August 6
The pufferfish (or blowfish) is a fish of the family Tetraodontidae, order Tetraodontiformes, named for its ability to inflate itself to several times its normal size by swallowing water or air when threatened. The internal organs of the pufferfish are highly toxic, but nevertheless its meat is considered a delicacy in Japan, where it is known as fugu. The pear-shaped pufferfish is not a particularly capable swimmer, and uses mainly the pectoral fins for propulsion; they appear to be rowing themselves along with their undersized fins. As such, the fish cannot escape predators very well. (more...)
Recently featured: Order of the Garter – Father Damien – Economics
August 7
Calvin and Hobbes is a comic strip, written and illustrated by Bill Watterson, which follows the humorous antics of Calvin, an imaginative six-year-old boy, and Hobbes, his energetic and sardonic tiger. Syndicated from November 18, 1985 until December 31, 1995, at its height Calvin and Hobbes was carried by over 2,400 newspapers worldwide. To date, almost 23 million copies of 17 Calvin and Hobbes books have been printed. (more...)
Recently featured: Pufferfish – Order of the Garter – Father Damien
August 8
War elephants were important, although not widespread, weapons in ancient military history. Their main use was in charges, to trample the enemy and/or break their ranks. War elephants were exclusively male animals, as they are faster and more aggressive. An elephant charge could reach about 30 km/h and was difficult to stop by an infantry line. Its power was based on pure force and the fear that a charging 10-ton animal could inspire in the enemy lines. With the advent of gunpowder warfare in the late 15th century, war elephants became obsolete as a charging element because they could be easily knocked down by a cannon shot. (more...)
Recently featured: Calvin and Hobbes – Pufferfish – Order of the Garter
August 9
minarets overlooks the central market of Djenné
The Great Mosque of Djenné is the largest mud brick building in the world and is considered by many architects to be the greatest achievement of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, albeit with definite Islamic influences. The mosque is located in the city of Djenné, Mali on the flood plain of the Bani River. The first mosque on the site was built in the 13th century, but the current structure dates from the 1900s. As well as being the centre of the community of Djenné, it is one of the most famous landmarks in Africa. Along with the entire city of Djenné it was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988. (more...)
Recently featured: War elephant – Calvin and Hobbes – Pufferfish
August 10
Middle-earth is the name for the lands on J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional ancient Earth. The term can apply generally to the entire world (Arda) depicted in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, or in a narrow sense relating only to the main continent (also properly called Endor). Although Middle-earth's setting is often thought to be another world, it is actually a fictional period in Earth's own history — set 6,000 to 7,000 years ago. Tolkien emphatically insisted that Middle-earth is our Earth in several of his letters. The action of the books is largely confined to the north-west of the continent, corresponding to modern-day Europe. (more...)
Recently featured: Great Mosque of Djenné – War elephant – Calvin and Hobbes
August 11
MKULTRA was the code name for a CIA mind control research program lasting from the 1950s through the 1970s. Starting from 1964, the project was renamed to MKSEARCH. The project's goal was to produce a perfect truth drug for use in interrogating suspected Soviet spies during the Cold War, and generally to explore any other possibilities of mind control. Experiments were often conducted without the subjects' knowledge or consent. The project was headed by Dr. Sidney Gottlieb. (more...)
Recently featured: Middle-earth – Great Mosque of Djenné – War elephant
August 12
Plate tectonics is a theory of geology developed to explain the phenomenon of continental drift. In the theory of plate tectonics the outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two layers, the outer lithosphere and the inner asthenosphere. Plate tectonic theory arose out of two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. Tectonic plates are broadly divisible into two groups: continental and oceanic plates. The distinction is based on the density of their constituent materials; oceanic plates are denser than continental plates due to their greater mafic mineral content. As a result, the oceanic plates generally lie below sea level, while the continental plates project above sea level. (more...)
Recently featured: MKULTRA – Middle-earth – Great Mosque of Djenné
August 13
Jim Thorpe is considered by many to be one of the most versatile athletes in modern sports. He won Olympic gold medals in the pentathlon and decathlon, starred in college and professional American football, and played Major League Baseball. He subsequently lost his Olympic titles for violating amateurism regulations. Only in 1983, thirty years after his death, were his medals restored. (more...)
Recently featured: Plate tectonics – MKULTRA – Middle-earth
August 14
Monopoly is one of the best-selling board games in the world. At first sight it appears to be a race game with players moving their tokens around the squares at the edge of the board according to the roll of the dice. However, the conditions for winning are actually based on the acquisition of wealth through a stylised version of economic activity involving the purchase, rental and trading of real estate using play money. It is named after the economic concept of monopoly, the domination of a market by a single seller. (more...)
Recently featured: Jim Thorpe – Plate tectonics – MKULTRA
August 15
Peer review is a scholarly process used in the publication of manuscripts and in the awarding of funding for research. Publishers and funding agencies use peer review to select and to screen submissions. The process also assists authors in meeting the standards of their discipline. Publications and awards that have not undergone peer review are liable to be regarded with suspicion by scholars and professionals in many fields. (more...)
Recently featured: Monopoly – Jim Thorpe – Plate tectonics
August 16
Operation Downfall was the overall Allied plan for the invasion of Japan at the end of World War II, but was ultimately never used. It was scheduled to occur in two parts — Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyūshū, set to begin in November, 1945; and later Operation Coronet, the invasion of Honshū near Tokyo, scheduled for the spring of 1946. Kyūshū was to be invaded at three points — Miyazaki beach, Ariake beach, and Kushikino beach. Southern Kyūshū would become a staging ground for operation Coronet, and would give the Allies a valuable airbase from which to operate. Following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the Soviet declaration of war against Japan, the Japanese surrendered and the operation was cancelled. (more...)
Recently featured: Peer review – Monopoly – Jim Thorpe
August 17
The Governor-General of India was the head of the British administration in India. The office was created in 1773, and gained complete authority over all of British India in 1833. In 1858, India came under the direct control of the British Crown, and the Governor-General acted as the Sovereign's representative. To reflect this role, the term "Viceroy" was informally applied; the title was abandoned when India became independent in 1947. The office of Governor-General continued to exist until India adopted a constitution in 1950. (more...)
Recently featured: Operation Downfall – Peer review – Monopoly
August 18
Barack Obama is an American politician from Chicago, Illinois. A Democrat and current state senator, Obama was the third African-American to deliver a keynote address at a Democratic National Convention. A former law professor, Obama is currently running for an open seat in the U.S. Senate. If successful, Obama would be only the third black U.S. senator since Reconstruction (the two previous being Edward Brooke and Carol Moseley-Braun). (more...)
Recently featured: Governor-General of India – Operation Downfall – Peer review
August 19
A fractal is a geometric object with an irregular, broken or fractured shape, generated by a repeating pattern, typically a recursive or iterative process. This gives it many interesting features, most notably self-similarity and infinite detail regardless of magnification. Classical attempts to measure the size of a fractal's perimeter, area or volume fail, due to the lack of definite limit of detail. Fractal geometry has numerous applications in science, technology and computer-generated art. (more...)
Recently featured: Barack Obama – Governor-General of India – Operation Downfall
August 20
Papal elections are the method by which the Roman Catholic Church fills the office of Bishop of Rome, whose incumbent is informally (but usually) referred to as the Pope. An occasion steeped in centuries-old tradition, a meeting of clergymen held to select the Pope is referred to as a conclave. The term comes from the Latin phrase cum clavi ("with a key"), referring to the "locking away" of the electors during the process. Conclaves have been employed since the Second Council of Lyons decreed in 1274 that the electors should meet in seclusion. They are held in the Sistine Chapel in the Palace of the Vatican. (more...)
Recently featured: Fractal – Barack Obama – Governor-General of India
August 21
The Data Encryption Standard, or DES, is a cipher selected as an official FIPS standard for the United States in 1976, and which has subsequently enjoyed widespread use internationally. The algorithm was initially controversial, with classified design elements, a relatively short key length, and continuing suspicions about a National Security Agency (NSA) backdoor. DES consequently came under intense academic scrutiny, and motivated the modern understanding of block ciphers and their cryptanalysis. Due to its short key length, DES is considered to be insecure for many applications, and has in recent years been superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard. (more...)
Recently featured: Papal election – Fractal – Barack Obama
August 22
Montparnasse is an area of Paris, France, on the left bank of the river Seine, centered on the intersection of the Boulevard de Montparnasse and the Boulevard Raspail. It is part of the 14eme arrondissement, having been absorbed into Paris along with other districts and villages in 1860. Like its counterpart, Montmartre, the neighborhood of Montparnasse became famous at the beginning of the 20th century, referred to as the Années Folles (the Crazy Years), when it was the heart of intellectual and artistic life in Paris with its legendary cafés. (more...)
Recently featured: Data Encryption Standard – Papal election – Fractal
August 23
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Humphrey Bogart was an iconic American film actor during his life and remains a legend decades after his death. Bogart typically played smart, playful, courageous, tough, occasionally reckless characters who lived in a corrupt world, anchored by a hidden moral code. Outside of the U.S., Bogart is seen as a cult figure; French actors such as Jean-Paul Belmondo were deeply influenced by his work and image. Bogart appeared in 75 feature films, including Casablanca, the The Maltese Falcon and The African Queen, for which he won an Academy Award for Best Actor. (more...)
Recently featured: Montparnasse – Data Encryption Standard – Papal election
August 24
Cold fusion is the name for a nuclear fusion reaction that occurs well below the temperature required for thermonuclear reactions — such reactions may occur near room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and even in a relatively small experiment. The term was coined by Dr. Paul Palmer of Brigham Young University in 1986 in an investigation of the possible existence of fusion in a planetary core. It was brought into popular consciousness by the controversy surrounding the Fleischmann-Pons experiment in 1989. Unfortunately, no "cold" fusion experiments that gave an otherwise unexplainable net release of energy have so far been reproducible. (more...)
Recently featured: Humphrey Bogart – Montparnasse – Data Encryption Standard
August 25
Tuberculosis is the most common major infectious disease today, infecting one-third of the world's population with nine million new cases of active disease annually, resulting in two million deaths, mostly in developing countries.
Hopes that the disease could be completely eliminated have been dashed since the rise of drug-resistant strains in the 1980s. (more...)
Recently featured: Cold fusion – Humphrey Bogart – Montparnasse
August 26
Art competitions were held from 1912 to 1948 at the Olympic Games. The competitions were an idea of Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympic Movement. Medals were awarded in five areas: architecture, literature, music, painting and sculpture, to works of art inspired by sport. The art competitions were abandoned in 1954 because artists were contended to be professionals, while Olympic athletes were required to be amateurs. Since 1956, the Olympic cultural programme has taken the place of the art competitions. (more...)
Recently featured: Tuberculosis – Cold fusion – Humphrey Bogart
August 27
Coca-Cola is a popular carbonated drink sold in stores, restaurants and vending machines in many nations of the world. It is one of the world's most recognizable and widely sold commercial brands, available in over 200 countries, and is the best-selling soft drink in all but three of those countries. The Coca-Cola Company's international headquarters are in Atlanta, Georgia. Coke's major rival is Pepsi, which began as its imitator in the early 20th century. (more...)
Recently featured: Art competitions at the Summer Olympics – Tuberculosis – Cold fusion
August 28
Russian is the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages. It belongs to the group of Indo-European languages, and is therefore related to Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, as well as the modern Germanic, Romance, and Celtic languages, including English, French, and Gaelic. Written examples are extant from the tenth century A.D. onwards. While it preserves much of its ancient synthetic-inflexional structure and a Common Slavonic word base, modern Russian shares a large stock of the international vocabulary for politics, science, and technology. A language of political importance in the twentieth century, Russian is one of the official languages of the United Nations. (more...)
Recently featured: Coca-Cola – Art competitions at the Summer Olympics – Tuberculosis
August 29
The traditional counties of England are historic subdivisions of the country into around 40 regions. They were used for administrative purposes for hundreds of years, and over time became established as a geographic reference frame. The usually-accepted set of counties was established in the 12th century, although it did not become finalized until the 16th century. After local government reform since the late 19th century, they are no longer in general use for geographic purposes (in favour of ceremonial counties or administrative counties), but the system in use is partially based on the traditional counties, and the postal counties often still follow them. (more...)
Recently featured: Russian language – Coca-Cola – Art competitions at the Summer Olympics
August 30
A tank is a tracked and armoured combat vehicle designed primarily to destroy enemy ground forces by direct fire. A modern main battle tank, designed predominantly for combat, is the most powerful direct-fire land-based weapon. It is distinguished from other armoured fighting vehicles primarily by its heavy armour and armament. It can cross rough terrain and move relatively quickly in short bursts, but is power-, maintenance-, and ammunition-hungry and is not designed for sustained operations. Tanks were first used in World War I and have undergone many generations of design evolution since then. Tanks are now a fairly mature technology, but significant improvements continue to be made in tank subsystems. (more...)
Recently featured: Traditional counties of England – Russian language – Coca-Cola
August 31
Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese sea explorer who sailed for Spain. He was the first to sail from Europe westwards to Asia, the first European to sail the Pacific Ocean, and the first to lead an expedition for the purpose of circumnavigating the globe. Though Magellan himself died in the East Indies before returning to Europe, some of the crew and fleet he organized and guided for half the journey did return there in 1522, having circumnavigated the globe. (more...)
Recently featured: Tank – Traditional counties of England – Russian language